Riflessioni su integrazione, banlieue francesi e teoria del contratto sociale
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Vengono definite scienze umane, una branca della scienza che studia lâessere umano, in quanto soggetto di pensiero e di azione, al fine di comprendere le cause e il significato dei suoi comportamenti; in sostanza, le scienze umane offrono la possibilitĂ di comprendere meglio noi stessi e il mondo che ci circonda.
La questione dellâintegrazione non Ăš sempre facile da affrontare; soprattutto quando si pensa di doverlo fare col metodo scientifico; e se le scienze umane risultano essere di grande aiuto in questo processo, bisogna anche considerare che molto probabilmente non ci sarĂ mai LA risposta esatta come quello che avviene quando si parla di âscienze dureâ (in contrapposizione alle scienze molli che sono le scienze umane) come la matematica, la fisica o la chimica; e dunque le scienze umane qui diventano un âtutoreâ che ci permette di seguire la nostra ricerca o la nostra analisi verso la direzione giusta ma non rappresentano un elemento di risposta.
Prendiamo per esempio la Francia, uno dei paesi piĂč avanti quando si parla delle questioni di razzismo e di integrazione ma che, nonostante tutto, ha un problema che si chiama: le banlieues.
Il problema delle banlieues in Francia risulta essere una questione complessa che riguarda la situazione sociale, economica e culturale di milioni di persone che vivono in quartieri periferici e svantaggiati, spesso di origine immigrata. Nel corso degli anni, le banlieues sono state teatro di diverse ondate di proteste e violenze, che hanno messo in evidenza le difficoltĂ di integrazione, le disuguaglianze, il razzismo e lâesclusione che caratterizzano queste aree.
Possiamo citare per esempio:
- La morte di Nahel nel 2023, un diciassettenne ucciso da un agente di polizia a Nanterre, un sobborgo occidentale di Parigi, durante un controllo stradale che il ragazzo avrebbe cercato di evitare. La morte di Nahel innescĂČ una nuova ondata di proteste e violenze nelle banlieues, con oltre 4 mila arresti e lâistituzione di processi per direttissima.
- La rivolta delle banlieues del 2005, scatenata dalla morte di due adolescenti che si erano nascosti in una centralina elettrica per sfuggire alla polizia a Clichy-Sous-Bois, un sobborgo a ovest di Parigi. La rivolta durĂČ circa un mese e coinvolse diverse cittĂ francesi, con migliaia di auto incendiate, atti vandalici, scontri con le forze dellâordine e un morto. Il presidente Jacques Chirac decretĂČ lo stato di emergenza e il coprifuoco per 12 giorni, mentre il primo ministro Dominique de Villepin annunciĂČ la creazione di una grande agenzia per la coesione sociale e lâuguaglianza di opportunitĂ .
Detto questo, forse per capire meglio questo problema, bisogna tornare un poâ indietro nel tempo per conoscerne lâorigine.
La cosa che in un certo senso peggiorĂČ la situazione Ăš che a partire dagli anni 70, il governo francese decise di mettere un freno a questo tipo di costruzione preferendo le case di tipo suburbano. Come conseguenza la classe media si trasferĂŹ nelle case suburbane, lasciando la classe piĂč povera e prevalentemente immigrata negli âalloggi collettiviâ. Ed Ăš cosĂŹ che nel corso degli anni si formarono le banlieues, con i problemi che conosciamo oggi; che sono dovuti: un poâ alla loro origine, un poâ a una mancanza di progettazione della societĂ in generale che non ha saputo includere questa popolazione nel suo âcontratto socialeâ per favorire una migliore coesione sociale.
Per contratto sociale, si intende la teoria che spiega la nascita e il funzionamento dello Stato. Secondo questa teoria, gli individui decidono di uscire dallo stato di natura e di cedere i loro diritti alla comunitĂ , in cambio di sicurezza e ordine.
Il contratto sociale Ăš quindi un accordo tra le persone che stabilisce le possibilitĂ e i limiti della vita sociale.
Tra i principali pensatori che hanno elaborato la teoria del contratto sociale ci sono i britannici Thomas Hobbes e John Locke e lo svizzero Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Essi hanno dato interpretazioni diverse del concetto di stato di natura, del ruolo del sovrano, dei diritti e dei doveri dei cittadini, e delle condizioni per la legittimitĂ o la rottura del contratto sociale.
Per Hobbes, lo stato di natura Ăš una condizione di guerra di tutti contro tutti, in cui regna il timore della morte violenta e la vita Ăš âsolitaria, povera, brutta, bestiale e breveâ. Per uscire da questa situazione, gli individui si accordano per trasferire tutti i loro diritti e poteri a un sovrano assoluto, che li protegge dalla violenza altrui e impone la pace e lâordine con la forza. Il contratto sociale Ăš quindi un patto di sottomissione, in cui i cittadini rinunciano alla loro libertĂ naturale in cambio della sicurezza civile.
Locke sostiene invece che lo stato di natura Ăš una condizione di libertĂ e uguaglianza, in cui gli individui godono dei diritti naturali alla vita, alla libertĂ e alla proprietĂ . Tuttavia, questi diritti sono minacciati dallâingiustizia e dalla violazione da parte di alcuni. Per garantire i loro diritti, gli individui si accordano per istituire un governo limitato e rappresentativo, che li difende dalle aggressioni esterne e interne e che rispetta le leggi della natura. Il contratto sociale Ăš quindi un patto di fiducia, in cui i cittadini conservano la loro libertĂ naturale e delegano al governo il potere di governare secondo il consenso della maggioranza. Se il governo abusa del suo potere o viola i diritti dei cittadini, questi hanno il diritto di resistere o di ribellarsi.
Al di lĂ delle differenze che possiamo evidenziare su queste diverse teorie, principalmente quello che chiamano lo âstato di naturaâ, câĂš comunque un punto essenziale che li unisce tutti e cioĂš lâaccordo tra i cittadini. Non puĂČ esistere nessun contratto sociale se non câĂš nessun accordo tra i cittadini e non puĂČ esserci accordo tra i cittadini se prima non câĂš coesione sociale.
Diventa quindi fondamentale, per ogni societĂ , riuscire a mettere in atto delle politiche sociali che portano sempre piĂč a migliorare la coesione sociale tra gli individui. Se a volte questo tipo di politiche Ăš difficile da raggiungere, lo Ăš ancora di piĂč quando si parla di societĂ multietniche.
Inoltre, ogni societĂ moderna e civile dovrebbe garantire a ogni individuo la possibilitĂ di crescita e di autodeterminazione, nel rispetto dei diritti e dei doveri di ciascuno. Questo significa dare a tutti la possibilitĂ di esprimere il proprio potenziale, sia personale che professionale che sociale, e di contribuire al miglioramento della societĂ in cui viviamo. Non dobbiamo accontentarci del mondo che abbiamo ereditato, ma dobbiamo avere il coraggio di cambiare e di migliorare le cose... magari non ci riusciremo, ma come si usa dire: âtentar non nuoceâ.
Human sciences are defined as a branch of science that studies human beings as subjects of thought and action, with the aim of understanding the causes and meaning of their behaviors; essentially, human sciences offer the possibility of better understanding ourselves and the world around us.
While it was easy from the start to take an interest in certain issues regarding society in general and integration in particular, it was not as easy to find answers to the numerous questions I asked myself (at least regarding our society). And while initially, for me, it was just a curiosityâone of those things you do in your free time with the desire to understand a bit moreâit slowly evolved and ultimately became one of those things you do because you âfeelâ you have to; perhaps to propose a more acceptable alternative to the one already present.
As with anything, to propose a solution to a potential problem, one must first identify the problem; and while the Cartesian method was of great help in that phase, I thought it would be important to seek elements of answers in the human sciences in general. This is simply because when we speak of integration, we speak of people, and therefore of human beings.
The issue of integration is not always easy to address, especially when one considers doing so with the scientific method; and while the human sciences prove to be of great help in this process, one must also consider that, very likely, there will never be THE exact answer as happens when speaking of âhard sciencesâ (in contrast to âsoft sciences,â which are the human sciences) like mathematics, physics, or chemistry. Thus, human sciences here become a âtutorâ that allows us to follow our research or analysis in the right direction, but they do not represent a definitive answer element.
In its general definition, integration is the act of making whole, full, or perfect that which is incomplete or insufficient, by adding what is necessary or supplying the defect with appropriate means. In other words, starting from this generic definition, integration is merely the act of bringing new notions to something that already contains other things, but which, from the standpoint of its environment or society, is not sufficient. In this sense, therefore, even a person born in the same country must integrate into that society. This is also because, from the perspective of social sciences, integration indicates the set of social and cultural processes that make the individual a member of a society.
If in most cases we always speak of the integration of immigrants, it is simply because, coming from a different country, they have more notions to integrate in order to move autonomously in the new society. It must also be remembered that integration depends not only on the country to which one moves but also on the socialization capacity of each individual.
Let us take France, for example, one of the most advanced countries when speaking of issues of racism and integration, but which, despite everything, has a problem called: the banlieues.
The problem of the banlieues in France turns out to be a complex issue regarding the social, economic, and cultural situation of millions of people living in disadvantaged peripheral neighborhoods, often of immigrant origin. Over the years, the banlieues have been the scene of various waves of protests and violence, which have highlighted the difficulties of integration, inequalities, racism, and exclusion characterizing these areas.
We can cite, for example:
- The death of Nahel in 2023, a seventeen-year-old killed by a police officer in Nanterre, a western suburb of Paris, during a traffic stop the boy allegedly tried to avoid. Nahelâs death triggered a new wave of protests and violence in the banlieues, with over 4,000 arrests and the institution of immediate summary trials.
- The banlieues riots of 2005, triggered by the death of two teenagers who had hidden in an electrical substation to escape the police in Clichy-Sous-Bois, a suburb west of Paris. The revolt lasted about a month and involved several French cities, with thousands of cars burned, acts of vandalism, clashes with law enforcement, and one death. President Jacques Chirac decreed a state of emergency and a curfew for 12 days, while Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin announced the creation of a large agency for social cohesion and equal opportunities.
That said, perhaps to better understand this problem, we need to go back a bit in time to know its origin.
In the 1950s, the housing situation in France was catastrophic: more than two million homes were destroyed during the Second World War. Those still standing were dilapidated and often overcrowded. More and more shantytowns appeared at the entrances of large cities. Among those who had accommodation, 42% lacked running water, 73% lacked toilets, and 90% lacked a shower or bath. In short, there was an emergency; it was necessary to build as quickly as possible. Especially since France was also facing a demographic explosion. Shantytowns, rural exodus, massive arrivals of repatriates from Algeria and immigrant workers: in 20 years France had gained almost a million inhabitants; thus, the choice was made to fight the severe housing shortage with reinforced concrete prefabricated panels that allowed the construction of low-cost collective housing in record time.
The question that the âthinkersâ of these âcollective housingsâ did not ask themselves at the time is that of integration and the capacity of that diversity of population to live together; and they practically did not think to build social centers or cultural associations to promote the ability to live together and social cohesion. Very likely because, being the 50s/60s, it was a problem that either did not exist yet, or it was not thought that it could become a problem in the future, or it was not a priority.
The thing that in a certain sense worsened the situation is that starting from the 70s, the French government decided to put a brake on this type of construction, preferring suburban-type houses. As a consequence, the middle class moved to suburban houses, leaving the poorer and predominantly immigrant class in the âcollective housings.â And this is how, over the years, the banlieues were formed, with the problems we know today; which are due: partly to their origin, partly to a lack of planning of society in general that failed to include this population in its âsocial contractâ to foster better social cohesion.
By social contract, we mean the theory that explains the birth and functioning of the State. According to this theory, individuals decide to exit the state of nature and cede their rights to the community, in exchange for security and order.
The social contract is therefore an agreement between people that establishes the possibilities and limits of social life.
Among the main thinkers who developed the social contract theory are the British Thomas Hobbes and John Locke and the Swiss Jean-Jacques Rousseau. They gave different interpretations of the concept of the state of nature, the role of the sovereign, the rights and duties of citizens, and the conditions for the legitimacy or breaking of the social contract.
For Hobbes, the state of nature is a condition of war of all against all, in which the fear of violent death reigns and life is âsolitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.â To exit this situation, individuals agree to transfer all their rights and powers to an absolute sovereign, who protects them from the violence of others and imposes peace and order by force. The social contract is therefore a pact of submission, in which citizens renounce their natural freedom in exchange for civil security.
Locke argues instead that the state of nature is a condition of freedom and equality, in which individuals enjoy natural rights to life, liberty, and property. However, these rights are threatened by injustice and violation by some. To guarantee their rights, individuals agree to establish a limited and representative government, which defends them from external and internal aggression and respects the laws of nature. The social contract is therefore a pact of trust, in which citizens retain their natural freedom and delegate to the government the power to govern according to the consent of the majority. If the government abuses its power or violates citizensâ rights, they have the right to resist or rebel.
Rousseau, finally, argues that the state of nature is a condition of innocence and happiness, in which individuals live isolated and independent, without artificial needs or conflicts. With the development of society and private property, inequalities, injustices, corruption, and misery arise. To re-establish harmony among men, individuals agree to found a Democratic State, based on the general will and the active participation of citizens. The social contract is therefore a pact of association, in which citizens alienate all their rights to the community and obey only themselves as members of the political body. If the State does not reflect the general will or does not protect the common interest, the social contract dissolves.
Beyond the differences we can highlight in these various theories, mainly concerning what they call the âstate of nature,â there is nonetheless an essential point that unites them all: the agreement among citizens. No social contract can exist if there is no agreement among citizens, and there can be no agreement among citizens if there is no social cohesion first.
It therefore becomes fundamental, for every society, to succeed in implementing social policies that increasingly lead to improving social cohesion among individuals. If at times this type of policy is difficult to achieve, it is even more so when speaking of multi-ethnic societies.
That social cohesion will thus become a fundamental value because it will favor peaceful coexistence, solidarity, and the well-being of all. For this reason, it is important that social policies are oriented towards promoting integration and respect among people, especially in multi-ethnic contexts where cultural diversity can be a wealth but also a challenge.
Furthermore, every modern and civil society should guarantee every individual the possibility of growth and self-determination, respecting the rights and duties of each one. This means giving everyone the chance to express their potentialâpersonal, professional, and socialâand to contribute to the improvement of the society in which we live. We must not settle for the world we have inherited, but we must have the courage to change and improve things⊠perhaps we wonât succeed, but as the saying goes: âthere is no harm in trying.â